Recent Changes

Social identity, agency and investment (Norton)
The theory of social identity looks to reframe perceptions on the relationship between the English language learner and the language learning context. It challenges the notion that affective factors are individual variables and argues that these affective variables are influenced by and interact with the social context, are multi-dimensional and even contradictory, and are constantly changing with time. In placing the learner within this social context, this theory also discusses the potential for an inherent inequity in the discourse between languagelearner and native speaker and argues that "second language theorists, teachers, and students cannot take for granted that those who speak regard those who listen as worthy to listen, and that those who listen regard those who speak as worthy to speak." (Pierce, 1995, pp.9).
of interdependency reinforces the notion that identity is a affective filters (Krashens(Krashen's hypothesis) or affecting acculturation (Schumann(Schumann's theory) have in inequitable relationsofrelations of power, changing inherent, and measureablemeasurable learner variables"(Norton constrain this action.Muchaction. Much of the target language speaker;speakers; however, significant attention." (Norton &Toohey,& Toohey, 2011, p.427). of mutli-modal forms of communication and multi-media to identities’". (Norton &Toohey,& Toohey, 2011, p.429.) classroom?” (Norton &Toohey,& Toohey, 2011, p.421.)
Ultimately this discussion asks the teacher to define their views on the impact of societal structure, personal agency, and situational context on language acquisition. This requires significant ability for self-reflection and critique of our society (from classroom to beyond). This present a significant challenge but offers great potential "If language educators recognize that diverse classroom practices offer learners a range of positions from which to speak, listen, read, or write, it is important for educators to explore with students which identity positions offer the greatest opportunity for social engagement and interaction."(Norton & Toohey, 2011, p.429).
References:
Identity texts can be used in many different ways. In a classroom or school of many different home languages the use of dual language identity texts becomes a beneficial tool. Teachers help the students write their story in the language of school instruction, most of the time students have not been taught how to read or write in their L1, then with the help of translators or resources the stories are translated into their home languages. Depending on the grade level illustrations can be paired with the piece as well or students can have the option of writing their draft in whatever language they are most comfortable. By showing the students their home language is welcomed at school and in the classroom, the students’ knowledge, ideas, and feelings are expressed between both languages and can be shared at home and in the classroom.
Reference:
P. (2005). EllELL students speak
Funds of knowledge (Gonzalez, Moll, et al.)
Funds of knowledge is a theory that suggests that in knowing the activities and experiences that occur within the student’s household a valuable resource is made and can easily be used in the classroom. By acknowledging that each household has “historically accumulated and culturally developed bodies of knowledge and skills” (Moll et al., 1992, p. 133), teachers can create multiple activities and strategies that can be used to engage students that center around those skills and knowledge. According to Dantas-Whitney, Clemente and Higgins, “The theory of funds of knowledge is based on the assumption that minority students’ households possess rich social and cultural capital that is never reflected in the school curriculum” (Dantas-Whitney, Clemente, & Higgins, 2012, p. 116). In using the social and cultural knowledge the students bring to the classroom, teachers can create deeper understanding within the curriculum being taught by relating it to the students. The theory suggests that through household visits and one on one time with a family, new knowledge can be obtained and then turned into a meaningful lesson that plays upon the student’s prior knowledge (Lopez, 2006). By recognizing the importance of what each student and their household has to offer, classroom practice can be positively affected and the students can see value in their learning.

Teachers using critical pedagogy must clarify and investigate how knowledge is produced and legitimatized in our schools and society. Then they must look at these forms of knowledge critically to better understand the dominate forms and to help in the production of new forms. Giving students decoding skills in the various arenas of their life, such as “ideological dimensions of texts, institutions, social practices and cultural forms” helps create critical thinking citizens who will be more capable “analyzing and challenging the oppressive characteristics of the society” (Pennycook 1990 p. 309).
Critical pedagogy has many theoretical underpins based on the various critical traditions from the works of European critical theorists and also many different North American works of diverse schools of thought. The European theorists who helped influence critical pedagogy are Adorno, Horkheimer, and Marcuse. Critical pedagogy has been influenced by North American tradition through the works of Dewey and the social reconstructionists of the 1930s. More recently, sociology of education, feminism and post-modernist and post-structuralist thought has influenced critical pedagogy (Pennycook 1990).
very valid pointpoints about the
References
Pennycook, A. (1990). Critical pedagogy and second language education. System, 18(3), 303-314.
Problem-posing approaches (Auerbach)
Definition - Problem-posing approach is a tool or means for developing and strengthening critical thinking skills. It is an inductive questioning process which structures dialogue in the classroom.
Theory– RootedProblem-posing is rooted in works steps - 1)Describe1) Describe the content, the problem, 3)Personalize3) Personalize the problem, 4)Discuss4) Discuss the problem, and 5)Discuss5) Discuss alternatives to to the problem. problem.Problem-posing approaches can also be used with young learners. These learners can be asked to explore issues that are relevant to them at school (e.g., elimination of recess at school; lack of elective choices) or at home/in the community (e.g., curfew hours). Issues can also be explored through literature, movies, etc.
Some students are most comfortable with traditional classrooms. This is a way for the teacher to work in simple grammar and vocabulary exercises, leaving spaces for students to fill in information about their own culture, beliefs, and practices. Curriculum comes through interaction with the students. Teachers have to learn the art of letting go of control and power, facilitating discussions, turning the learning over to the students, trusting in their own interests.
Problem-posing enables students to bring their experiences, cultures, life lessons and stories to the program. Their lives are reflected in the purposeful, thoughtful and determined actions which defines the dialogue. It is a philosophy which teaches students how to think critically and analytically by examining the world in which they live.

Sociocultural Theory and language development (Lantolf)
Languaging (Swain)
Sociocultural theory believesstates that language
Vygotsky believed that teachers need to understand the historical and cultural contexts of students’ background to be able to understand how their students’ minds have developed. He also believed that language plays an important role in human development and that we internalize language that we learn from our social context. Language then becomes our basis for our mental tool kit (Diaz-Rico & Weed, 2010).
Since language is an important tool for learning, teachers who use peer communication as a technique to enrich their students’ exposure to language provide more opportunities for students to engage and enjoy English. Some of the methods teachers can use in their classrooms are mixing more proficient English students with less proficient English students, incorporating readers’ theater with other students in the classroom, setting up class discussion in an information-rich environment, and placing equal value on the primary language of all students so that there is no feelings of unfair privileges towards native-English speakers (Diaz-Rico & Weed, 2010).
cognitively complex activitites”activities” (Swain &
Languaging contrasts with former ideas that all cognitive processes happen inside the brain and are then transmitted through language. These traditional second language acquisition theories, then, see communication and interaction through language as the result of cognitive processes, not the source. However, languaging posits that speaking and writing is the actual process through which growth occurs; it is “thinking in progress” (Swain and Deters, 2007, p. 822). The result of languaging, the actual words produced, are considered as artifactual evidence and can be used to reflect and develop further. Maria Dantas-Whitney, Angeles Clemente, and Michael Higgens (2012) quote Lantolf when describing languaging as a way to “gain control over our memory, attention, planning, perception, learning, and development” language (p. 115). By speaking and writing, a person becomes an active participant in the learning process.
To utilize languaging in a classroom, a teacher should make sure that the curriculum includes opportunities for group work (preferably on a daily basis). It would be best if students work with a variety of partners so they will have increased chances to learn through talking with different types of students. Also, teachers could have project based learning that would allow students to not just regurgitate information but create their own project and thus be stretched to use languaging to communicate even more.

Cummins’ theories of language and cognition
Jim Cummins has been called a "no-nonsense voice in the world of second language acquisition" (Timothy Lange, 2007) He is currently a professor at the University of Toronto Ontario Institute for Studies in Education (Cummins' Faculty Profile) He has been an active force in Bilingual Education and research for most of the past thirty years.
Cummins’ research leadled to the
BICS vs.CALP
BICS stands for Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills and consists of those language skills that allow students to communicate everyday social contexts, such as at home or while spending time with a group of friends (Díaz-Rico & Weed (2006). Since BICS is context embedded (understanding and meaning are provided in the situation due to continuous feedback between participants), English Language Learners tend to develop it within two years; much more quickly than CALP.
The development of CALP in an English Language Learner is one that will take more time and thought on the part of the teacher. When introducing content-specific language in the classroom, it is helpful to provide student with visuals and realia as much as possible. Giving students the opportunity to visually picture the concept will aid their understanding. When the concept is more abstract, as is the case with more upper-leveled grades, resources such as charts, graphs and graphic organizers may be particularly helpful in the development of CALP.
Common Underlying Proficiency
likely to acheiveachieve competence in collective linguistic competancecompetence of the p. 38).
References:
Cummins, J. (1981) Bilingualism and minority language children. Ontario; Ontario Institute for Studies in Education.

Communicative Competence (Hymes; Canale & Swain)
Communicative competence is the aspect of knowing who one is speaking with, the setting in which the communication is taking place, and the appropriate usage for the language in that setting. A competent language user must learn to become proficient both in the appropriateness and efficacy of their communications. According to Wright (2010), the term “communicative competence” was first coined by Dell Hymes in 1972, and was expanded by Canale and Swain in 1980 (p. 34). The concept of communicative competence has its roots in the sociocultural perspective. That is, it is the speaker's ability to engage in discourse in a variety of competencies based on the specific context.
(2010) identify CanaleCanale's work from 1983 in which for specificidentified different components exist in theof communicative competence process.competence. Grammatical Competence sentence structure, punctuation's,punctuation, and spelling Competence addresses verbal and nonverbal communicationscommunication strategies that support
Freeman and Freeman (2004) identified five useful implications for teachers: 1) always assume that what the child is trying to communicate is important; 2) be sure to paraphrase the child's communication in order to seek a clearer understanding of what they're trying to say; 3) confirm the students intention of the communication; 4) reply at, or just above, the ELLs proficiency level; and lastly, 5) "encourage children to explore their understandings and use language for making meaning rather than asking students to respond to their specific questions with formulaic answers" (p. 9).
Wright (2010) cautions that it is tempting to place too much capital in the idea of "native speakers as the model of communicative competence to which all second language learners should strive" (p. 34). The shortcomings of communicative competence are that the perfect language knowledge simply doesn't exist, thereby making it relative based on the teachers' level of proficiency.
Wright, W. E. (2010). Foundations for teaching English language learners: Research, theory, policy, and practice. Philadelphia, PA: Caslon.
Communicative language teaching
reaction to ASLALM (audiolingual method) teaching. Educators
The goal is to allow students to understand how to use language for a wide variety of settings, purposes, participants, and kinds of texts. This style of language acquisition also focuses on the ability to communicate, despite gaps in the understanding of certain rules within the language. Students are encouraged to interact with users of the language, rather than trying to learn in an isolated classroom. Instructors frequently link learning together in ways it might be found in the real world, such as reading and writing. Significant importance is also placed on feedback and experimentation with various ways of speaking.
Because this form of language acquisition required new kinds of activities, the role of the teacher and student were altered. Instead of the “sage on the stage”, learning became a cooperative classroom activity. The teacher is still available for assistance and slight corrections, but more emphasis is placed on the class as a whole, rather than the individual. As a result, the students are expected to take on more responsibility for their learning.
Another aspect of CLT is the detailed consideration for what the learner hopes to use the language for. There is a heavy focus on setting, social roles, types of events, functions, and concepts involved. For example, students who wish to learn Japanese for business purposes will practice language that is business centered, and will learn fewer words relating to story telling or academia. Similarly, students who are studying Japanese to communicate with friends would not focus on financial vocabulary.
The main principalsprinciples of the they’ve learned.
References:
Jack C Richards, “Communicative Language Teaching Today”
References
Richards, J. (n.d.). Communicative language teaching today. Available at http://www.professorjackrichards.com/work.htm
Task-based learning (unedited notes)
A methodology that results from creating interactions within the classroom through specially designed pedagogical tasks. Task-based learning (TBL) seeks to create communicative competencies as a byproduct of sociocultural interactions. In TBL models, students rely on their L-1 as a resource for completing tasks that are not solely language learning (content learning, but not exclusively so). It requires a focus on the meanings of communications, and relies on interpersonal strategies for the completion of the task. Swain & Lapkin (2000) emphasized the importance of L1 use in task-based learning. In fact, their research indicated that collaboration, whether in L1 or L2, mediated L2 learning (p. 267).
Ellis (2000) defined "task" in terms of second language acquisition as being "primarily engaged in trying to communicate content (meaning his primary)" (p. 196). From a sociocultural perspective, language learners must first interpret the task and establish goals for completing it. Although not exclusively a single student activity, task-based learning is most often a paired or grouped exercise. By working in groups, language learners must construct meaning collaboratively, and in doing so learn grammatical competencies through the dialogue necessary for completing the task (p. 210). Ellis went on to note that in task-based learning it is possible (even likely) that content learning takes precedent over language acquisition.
REFERENCES
193 – 220.
Jack C Richards, “Communicative Language Teaching Today”220
Richards, J. (n.d.). Communicative language teaching today. Available at http://www.professorjackrichards.com/work.htm
Swain, M. & Lapkin, S. (2000). Task-based second language learning: The uses of the first language. Language Teaching Research, 4(3), 251-274.
Content-based instruction:
Again, because it is a subheading of CLT, the classroom is learner centered, not teacher centered. The students learn through practice, rather than through instructor lecture and conversation practice. Students acquire the language by learning the subject.
One of the benefits of this type of language instruction is that learners are frequently motivated to learn through interest in the subject matter. If a student is supremely interested in Saturn, they are more likely to pick up the language by reading or speaking more on the subject matter.
References: FreemanReferences:(Complete references needed)
Freeman and Freeman,
Brinton, D. Content Based Instruction.
Communicative Competence

The Monitor Hypothesis:The role of conscious effort in learning another language is small but important. "Learning has only one function, and that is as a Monitor." (Krashen, 1981, p.15). The monitor functions as a self-correcting ecumenism. Three conditions need to be met for a student to be best equipped to monitor their own language use effectively. They must have enough time to think about applying their knowledge, they must correctly know the language rules they are monitoring for, and they must be motivated to review their own language use. In addition, there are three general categories of monitors: students who monitor too much, not enough, or just the right amount.
The Natural Order Hypothesis: Krashen based this hypothesis on the work of others (Dulay & Burt, 1974, Fathman, 1975) but expanded the theories. It states that in general, children learn specific grammatical structures at around the same time, based on the specific language being studied. However, he cautioned that this is a broad generalization and that individual learners often have different speeds and areas in which they develop.
The Input Hypothesis:KrashenHypothesis: Krashen states that
The Affective Filter Hypothesis: The environment of the classroom and the tone set by the teacher raise or lower students feels of comfort and safety. When students have a low "affective filter", which is to say they feel comfortable and safe and supported, they are more likely to succeed. The higher a student's self-confidence and motivation, the more likely they are to succeed as well. Despite this, Krashen cautions that these factors only help promote language acquisition, not guarantee it.
References

The Monitor Hypothesis:The role of conscious effort in learning another language is small but important. "Learning has only one function, and that is as a Monitor." (Krashen, 1981, p.15). The monitor functions as a self-correcting ecumenism. Three conditions need to be met for a student to be best equipped to monitor their own language use effectively. They must have enough time to think about applying their knowledge, they must correctly know the language rules they are monitoring for, and they must be motivated to review their own language use. In addition, there are three general categories of monitors: students who monitor too much, not enough, or just the right amount.
The Natural Order Hypothesis: Krashen based this hypothesis on the work of others (Dulay & Burt, 1974, Fathman, 1975) but expanded the theories. It states that in general, children learn specific grammatical structures at around the same time, based on the specific language being studied. However, he cautioned that this is a broad generalization and that individual learners often have different speeds and areas in which they develop.
The Input Hypothesis:Similar to Vygotsky's "Zone of Proximal Development" theories, KrashenHypothesis:Krashen states that Weed, 2010, p.55)p.55). Some people say that comprehensible input is similar to Vygotsky's "Zone of Proximal Development." On the surface, this seems to be true; however, it is important to point out that Vygostsky and Krashen come from very different theoretical backgrounds. Krashen comes from a cognitive perspective -- his idea of comprehensible input is something that occurs within the individual minds of learners. Vygotsky comes from a sociocutural theoretical perspective. In other words, the zpd is a social construct. For Vygostky, knowledge is built socially before it is internalized in the individual minds of learners.
The Affective Filter Hypothesis: The environment of the classroom and the tone set by the teacher raise or lower students feels of comfort and safety. When students have a low "affective filter", which is to say they feel comfortable and safe and supported, they are more likely to succeed. The higher a student's self-confidence and motivation, the more likely they are to succeed as well. Despite this, Krashen cautions that these factors only help promote language acquisition, not guarantee it.
References

A general theory that looks at learning a language as a natural process that does not require extensive drills or rigid methods of formal instruction. Instead, learning is best achieved through actively communicating in another language in ways that are meaningful to the learner. A brief explanation of each of the five hypotheses underlying this model is given below.
The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis: The most well known and important of the five, this hypothesis describes two forms of gaining knowledge and skill. The first is called, "learning" and it is based on the teaching methods commonly employed in the US, where a teacher imparts knowledge directly to their students by teaching and lecture, and the student absorbs this passively. "Acquisition" is more subconscious, the kind of knowledge that one gains by simply doing a task and gaining understanding by doing it. Krashen states acquisition is the best way for students to master a language, although the language tasks they engage in must be genuine and thus meaningful.
(Krashen, 1981, p.15)p.15). The monitor functions as a self-correcting ecumenism. Three conditions
The Natural Order Hypothesis: Krashen based this hypothesis on the work of others (Dulay & Burt, 1974, Fathman, 1975) but expanded the theories. It states that in general, children learn specific grammatical structures at around the same time, based on the specific language being studied. However, he cautioned that this is a broad generalization and that individual learners often have different speeds and areas in which they develop.
The Input Hypothesis:Similar to Vygotsky's "Zone of Proximal Development" theories, Krashen states that students learn best when they receive comprehensible input that is not too easy and not too hard; instead it is just a little challenging for them. He calls this, i+1, which means input +1. "Comprehensible input...(contains) predictable elements: shorter sentences; more intelligible, well formed utterances; less subordination; and more restricted vocabulary and range of topics with a focus on communication." (Díaz-Rico & Weed, 2010, p.55)
higher a studentsstudent's self-confidence and
References
Krashen, Stephen D. (1981). Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition. English Language Teaching series. London: Prentice-Hall International (UK) Ltd.
Comprehension checks: Learners ask questions of the listeners to confirm (or affirm) they understood the meaning of the learners’ sentences.
The Interaction Hypothesis also identifies situations where the learner target language acquisition via interaction by ‘repairing.’ In repairing, the speaker repeats or restates the other speakers’ utterance to overcome a communication problem. In ‘reacting’ speakers repeat or paraphrase some part of the other speakers’ utterance to establish or develop the conversation topic. (Pica and Doughty, 1985).
(Ellis 1991). Bonny Norton also critiques Long by pointing out that the interaction hypothesis assumes that language learning is a neutral form of communication. In other words, the hypothesis doesn't take societal power relations into consideration (e.g., situations when learners interact with English speakers who are not willing to respond positively to their clarification requests, confirmation checks, etc.).
References:
1) Long, M. (1983). Native speaker/non-native speaker conversation in the second language classroom. On TESOL 1982.
Swain Output Hypothesis:
Essentially according to Swain and others exploring the Output Hypothesis, output is generally seen as the product of learning or the child demonstrating what they have learned (Merrill Swain, 2005). Students need opportunities to produce comprehensible output which ultimately benefits and produces more comprehensible input. According to Angela Anthony (2008), “Teachers use output to determine what students “know” or have learned about a topic” (p 473). But after more extensive research on the output hypothesis researchers are redefining the definition of this notion of output and discovering that output for ELLs is a learning process where ELLs learn from the feedback they receive and their deeper understanding of the subject matter.
educational environment.
As Anthony (2008) explained, “Creating a “literate environment” that is rich in input provides a safe setting in which to produce and explore a new language. Teachers can encourage the process of learning by creating ‘classroom conditions’ that enable English learners to cross over the instructional divide from confusion into meaningful learning” (p 474).
The following examples have been summarized and bulleted for convenience from (Anthony, 2008)
Use early literacy assessment (i.e Screening students for Phonological Awareness)
References:
61(6), 472-482.
Freeman, D. E. & Freeman, Y. S. (2004). Essential Linguistics. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Swain, M. (2005). The output hypothesis: Theory and research. In E. Hinkel (Ed.), Handbook of research in second language teaching and learning (pp. 471–483). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

Audio Lingual Method
The audio lingual method is a style of teaching used in teaching foreign languages. It is based on behaviorist theory, which professes that certain traits of living things, and in this case humans, could be trained through a system of reinforcement--correct use of a trait would receive positive feedback while incorrect use of that trait would receive negative feedback. The audio lingual advised that the students be taught a language directly, without using the students native language to explain new words or grammar in the target language. However, unlike the direct method, the audio lingual method didn't focus on teaching vocabulary. Rather the teacher drilled students in the use of grammar. Applied to language instruction and often within the context of the language lab, this means that the instructor would present the correct model of a sentence and the students would have to repeat it. The teacher would then continue by presenting new words for the students to sample in the same structure--everything is simply memorized in form.
on behavioral principals,principles. Oral practice
The audio lingual method was used to train soldiers a foreign language during World War Two. It became known as the "Army Method". Less than a year after America"s entry into the war, Leonard Bloomfield published a guide on learning languages for which teaching materials were unavailable. And linguists across the country prepared grammars, phrase books, dictionaries and other teaching materials. The audio lingual method consisted of a shift in emphasis from the written to the spoken language and immersion in intensive, practical instruction. What they advocated was for speech, not writing. Reading and writing could be presented later. When literacy skills were taught they needed to be based on oral skills, (Bowen, Madsen & Hilferty, 1985).
Descriptive Linguistics

Problem-posing approaches (Auerbach)
Definition - Problem-posing approach is a tool or means for developing and strengthening critical thinking skills. It is an inductive questioning process which structures dialogue in the classroom.
of the students(Boyce).students (Boyce, n.d.). He then just accepted. Auerback(p.146)Auerback (2000, p.146) states FriereFreire used the the problem (Nixon-Ponder).(Nixon-Ponder, n.d.).
Classroom applications – It works well for adult language learners. It is a way to empower students as they set out to learn another language. A problem is presented without an apparent solution. The object is not the solution but to look at how it relates to the individual, organization, and social issues in its context, identifying ways in which the learners can take collective action and constructively respond to the problem.
Some students are most comfortable with traditional classrooms. This is a way for the teacher to work in simple grammar and vocabulary exercises, leaving spaces for students to fill in information about their own culture, beliefs, and practices. Curriculum comes through interaction with the students. Teachers have to learn the art of letting go of control and power, facilitating discussions, turning the learning over to the students, trusting in their own interests.